The Problems of Philosophy

Most philosophers, rightly or wrongly, believe that philosophy can do much more than this—that it can give us knowledge, not otherwise attainable, concerning the universe as a whole, and concerning the nature of ultimate reality.

But we cannot have reason to reject a belief except on the ground of some other belief.

CHAPTER I. APPEARANCE AND REALITY

Thus it becomes evident that the real table, if there is one, is not the same as what we immediately experience by sight or touch or hearing. The real table, if there is one, is not immediately known to us at all, but must be an inference from what is immediately known. Hence, two very difficult questions at once arise; namely, (1) Is there a real table at all? (2) If so, what sort of object can it be?

Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable man could doubt it?

The real table, if it exists, we will call a 'physical object'. Thus we have to consider the relation of sense-data to physical objects. The collection of all physical objects is called 'matter'. Thus our two questions may be re-stated as follows: (1) Is there any such thing as matter? (2) If so, what is its nature?

philosophy is merely the attempt to answer such ultimate questions, not carelessly and dogmatically, as we do in ordinary life and even in the sciences, but critically, after exploring all that makes such questions puzzling, and after realizing all the vagueness and confusion that underlie our ordinary ideas.

Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable man could doubt it?

Descartes (1596-1650), the founder of modern philosophy

perhaps a majority, have held that there is nothing real except minds and their ideas. Such philosophers are called 'idealists'