The End of the Roman Republic

Even in his time, Julius Caesar was in many ways larger than life, and because of his legacy as virtual founder of the Roman Empire, much of what was written about — and by — him during his life and immediately after his assassination was politically motivated. His successor, Octavian Augustus, had a strong interest in ensuring that Caesar’s life be painted in a favorable light, while Caesar’s political enemies attempted to paint him as a corrupt, undemocratic dictator who was destroying the old order of the Republic. This makes it exceedingly difficult to separate historical fact from apocryphal interjection, as the writings of Cicero (a rival of Caesar’s) and the later biographies of Suetonius and Plutarch can be misleading. Nonetheless, along with Caesar’s De Bello Gallico, his famous notes on his campaign against the Gauls, they remain our chief sources for Caesar’s life — a life everyone agreed was nothing short of remarkable and changed the course of history forever.

Cleopatra was a legendary figure even to contemporary Romans and the ancient world, as Plutarch’s quote suggests, and she was a controversial figure who was equally reviled and praised through the years, depicted as a benevolent ruler and an evil seductress, sometimes at the same time. Over 2,000 years after her death, everything about Cleopatra continues to fascinate people around the world, from her lineage as a Ptolemaic pharaoh, her physical features, the manner in which she seduced Caesar, her departure during the Battle of Actium, and her famous suicide. And despite being one of the most famous figures in history, there is still much mystery surrounding her, leading historians and archaeologists scouring Alexandria, Egypt for clues about her life and the whereabouts of her royal palace and tomb.

While Mark Antony’s relationships with Rome’s most famous leaders and history’s most famous woman were central components in his lives, the fact that his legacy has been intertwined with them belies the fact that he was a powerful man in his own right. Coming up as a capable and competent military man who Caesar trusted as his right hand, Antony parlayed that into governing Rome itself while Caesar fought Pompey. After Caesar’s assassination in 44 B.C., Antony deftly navigated from tenuous footing as a declared enemy of the state to become one of Rome’s two most powerful leaders, arguably its most powerful, in just a matter of years, outmaneuvering and getting the best of enemies like Brutus and Cicero. At the same time, Antony was notorious in his own time for his voracious appetite for vice, and the branding of him as a boor has persisted for over 2,000 years.

The importance of Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (or as he was known from birth, Gaius Octavius “Octavian” Thurinus) to the course of Western history is hard to overstate. His life, his rise to power, his political, social and military achievements, all laid the foundations for the creation of an Empire which would endure for almost five centuries, and whose traditions, laws, architecture and art continue to influence much of Europe and the world today. Octavian was the first true Roman Emperor, and the first man since the Etruscan Tarquins, five centuries earlier, to establish a successful hereditary ruling dynasty in what had been a proud Republic for over half a millennium. He was a canny strategist, an excellent orator, a fine writer, a generous patron of the arts and enthusiastic promoter of public works, but above all he was a master politician. Octavian’s great-uncle (and adoptive father) Julius Caesar was a great general, his rival Mark Antony was a great soldier, but as a politician Octavian outmatched them all.